Across the Middle East and North Africa, imports were estimated to supply 74% of the grain used for animal feed over 2015–2020, with maize and barley the main feed grains [1]. Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries combine high dependence on food imports with limited arable land and water scarcity [2]. In Saudi Arabia specifically, limited domestic production capacity means substantial imports of animal feed [3].
For a compound mill this means that the mycotoxin risk of a batch is set partly in a field thousands of kilometres away, then added to during the sea voyage, port handling and storage on site. Each stage can be managed, but only if the mill knows what it is looking for.
Grain fungi are commonly grouped into field fungi, which colonise the crop before harvest (mainly Fusarium and Alternaria), and storage fungi, mainly Aspergillus and Penicillium, which can increase during storage when conditions favour them [4]. The split is not absolute: storage fungi may be more common in the field at lower latitudes [4], and aflatoxin-producing fungi are found especially in hot, humid climates, with contamination arising both before and after harvest [5].
Most field fungi do not infect grain after harvest, although they can produce mycotoxins before or just after harvest [4]. Fusarium can keep growing if grain is not dried properly [13]. Aspergillus and Penicillium, which include the producers of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A, can multiply in storage [4][5][9]. So the Fusarium toxins (DON, zearalenone, fumonisins, T-2/HT-2) are mainly an origin and drying issue, while aflatoxins and ochratoxin A can also increase during the voyage and on site.
| Mycotoxin | Main producing fungi | Commodities most affected | Main effects in livestock |
|---|---|---|---|
| Aflatoxin B1 | Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus [5] | Maize; peanuts and peanut products [12] | Poultry: poorer performance, lower immunity, organ damage, reduced egg production [12]; suppressed cell-mediated immunity [5]. Dairy ruminants: aflatoxin M1 appears in milk [11]. |
| Fumonisins (B1, B2) | Fusarium verticillioides, F. proliferatum [6] | Cereals, especially maize [6] | EFSA judged the risk low for poultry and very low for ruminants [6]. Chickens: kidney damage, diarrhoea, reduced weight gain reported [12]. |
| Deoxynivalenol (DON) | Fusarium species [7] | Wheat, barley, oats, rye and maize [7] | Adverse effects not expected in ruminants or poultry at mean EU dietary levels [7]. At high dietary concentrations, EFSA saw a potential risk of chronic adverse effects in fish [7]. |
| Zearalenone (ZEN) | Fusarium species, particularly F. graminearum [8] | Cereal grains [8] | Oestrogenic. Effects on oestrous cycle in sheep reported [8]. Poultry regarded as quite tolerant [8]. |
| Ochratoxin A (OTA) | Penicillium verrucosum, Aspergillus ochraceus, A. carbonarius [9] | Maize, wheat, barley, rye; in warmer regions A. ochraceus mainly on peanuts and soybeans [9] | Kidney and liver damage, immunosuppression, poorer performance; monogastrics more susceptible than ruminants, whose rumen microbes largely detoxify OTA [9]. Considered the most important cause of poultry nephropathy [9]. |
| T-2 and HT-2 toxins | F. poae, F. sporotrichioides, F. langsethiae [11] | Highest levels in oats and oat products [10] | Poultry: immunosuppression and lesions (for example, spleen) reported [12]. Calves and lambs: gastrointestinal lesions at high exposure [11]. EFSA judged ruminant risk unlikely to be a concern and poultry risk low at estimated EU exposures [17]. |
Ruminants are generally less susceptible than monogastrics because rumen microbes can degrade, deactivate or bind several mycotoxins [11]. Aflatoxin needs particular care in dairy herds: in the rumen, aflatoxin B1 is converted to several metabolites including aflatoxin M1, which is found in milk [11].
The Codex Alimentarius code of practice for cereals gives internationally agreed guidance [13]:
These are cereal figures. Safe moisture differs by commodity and grain size, so oilseed meals such as soybean meal need their own specification. In Saudi Arabia, SFDA requires feed warehouses to have temperature and humidity gauges with records, adequate ventilation, measures against dripping or condensation, and temperature and humidity checks on incoming materials [14].
European Union: maximum levels (binding). Directive 2002/32/EC sets aflatoxin B1 limits in mg/kg relative to feed with a moisture content of 12% [15]:
| Product | Aflatoxin B1 (mg/kg, 12% moisture) |
|---|---|
| Feed materials | 0.02 |
| Complementary and complete feed | 0.01 |
| Compound feed for dairy cattle and calves, dairy sheep and lambs, dairy goats and kids, and young poultry | 0.005 |
| Compound feed for cattle (except dairy cattle and calves), sheep (except dairy sheep and lambs), goats (except dairy goats and kids) and poultry (except young animals) | 0.02 |
Only the ruminant and poultry categories are shown; the Directive lists further categories.
Feed above a maximum level may not be mixed with other feed to dilute it [15].
European Union: guidance values. Commission Recommendation 2006/576/EC sets guidance values, also in mg/kg at 12% moisture [16]. Selected values for ruminants, poultry and fish, plus general cereal and compound-feed values:
| Mycotoxin | Product | Guidance value (mg/kg, 12% moisture) |
|---|---|---|
| DON | Cereals and cereal products (except maize by-products) | 8 |
| Maize by-products | 12 | |
| Compound feed (general) | 5 | |
| Compound feed for calves (< 4 months), lambs and kids | 2 | |
| ZEN | Cereals and cereal products (except maize by-products) | 2 |
| Maize by-products | 3 | |
| Compound feed for calves, dairy cattle, sheep (including lambs) and goats (including kids) | 0.5 | |
| OTA | Cereals and cereal products | 0.25 |
| Compound feed for poultry | 0.1 | |
| Fumonisins B1 + B2 | Maize and maize products | 60 |
| Compound feed for fish | 10 | |
| Compound feed for poultry, calves (< 4 months), lambs and kids | 20 | |
| Compound feed for adult ruminants (> 4 months) and mink | 50 |
The cereal values were set for the most tolerant species and are upper guidance values. For more sensitive species, the Recommendation expects manufacturers to apply lower values to cereals [16].
T-2 and HT-2. Recommendation 2013/165/EU sets indicative levels for the sum of T-2 and HT-2 in feed (relative to 12% moisture): 2,000 µg/kg (2 mg/kg) for oat milling products (husks), 500 µg/kg (0.5 mg/kg) for other cereal products, and 250 µg/kg (0.25 mg/kg) for compound feed other than cat feed [17]. These are triggers for investigation, not feed safety limits [17].
Saudi Arabia and the GCC. SFDA prohibits feed factories from accepting feed materials that exceed the maximum legislative limits approved by the Authority [14]. Two GCC technical regulations are relevant: GSO 193:2021, Contaminants and toxins in food and feed [18], and GSO 2814:2026, Contaminants and Toxins in Feed, approved on 30 April 2026 [19]. Both are sold documents and we could not check their full texts, so we do not quote numerical limits here. Mills should get the current texts from SFDA or GSO and build their acceptance criteria on them.
United Kingdom. Directive 2002/32/EC is EU law. Mills supplying Great Britain should confirm the current domestic requirements with the Food Standards Agency or Food Standards Scotland.
If you would like to talk through mycotoxin risk management for your mill, contact BioSpec.
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